Sedimentology, petrography and geochemistry of the Kuruman Banded Iron Formation in the Prieska area, Northern Cape Province of South Africa
- Authors: Mbongonya, Mainly Abongile https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2241-8558
- Date: 2021-01
- Subjects: Mines and mineral resources -- South Africa , Sedimentology
- Language: English
- Type: Master's theses , text
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/21345 , vital:48492
- Description: The sedimentary sequences hosted by the Griqualand West Basin within the Transvaal Supergroup, Northern Cape Province of South Africa, contain several iron and manganese ore deposits. Many studies have been conducted in the Griqualand West basin, particularly within the northern Ghaap plateau compartment where most iron and manganese mines are located, with less attention to the southern Prieska Compartment. Thus, the current study is targeted at the Kuruman Formation in the Prieska area to investigate the geological occurrence, including sedimentology, geochemistry, origin, and post-depositional alteration of the banded iron formation (BIF). Four stratigraphic sections were measured, and the fifth section was only mapped for lithology and sedimentary facies. These sections constitute portions of the stratigraphic sequence of the Transvaal Supergroup that occurs within the study area. The stratigraphic sequence of the area comprises nine successional cycles with five upward fining cycles and four upward-coarsening cycles. These cycles reflect fluctuation of the sea level and shallowing- and filling-up processes of the final basin. Four mineral paragenetic groups constituting primary minerals, diagenetic minerals, low-grade minerals, and weathering mineral assemblages were encountered in the area. The primary mineral assemblage includes magnetite, hematite, siderite, chert, quartz, and smectite. The diagenetic assemblage minerals in the area are martite, quartz (cement), illite, calcite, ankerite, and stilpnomelane. Low-grade assemblage minerals are riebeckite, crocidolite, and minnesotaite, whereas goethite, limonite, calcite (calcrete), quartz (silcrete), and clay minerals are the supergene (weathering) assemblage minerals. These mineral assemblages were confirmed by microscope petrography, XRD, SEM-EDX, and diagenesis studies. Eight sedimentary facies including Horizontal-laminated BIF facies (Hlb), Horizontal thin to medium bedded BIF facies (Hbb), Ripple laminated BIF facies (Rlb), Thin to medium bedded mudstone facies (Mbm), Medium to thick-bedded mudstone facies (Tbm), Medium to thick-bedded fine-sandstone facies (Mts), Laminated dolomite stromatolite facies (Ld), and Dome-shaped stromatolitic BIF facies (Dbif) were identified in the field. Five facies associations including Facies association 1 (Hlb + Hbb), Facies association 2 (Hlb + Hbb + Mbm + Tbm), Facies association 3 (Hlb + Hbb + Mbm + Tbm + Rlb), Facies association 4 (Mbm + Tbm + Mts), and Facies association 5 (Ld + Dbif + Mts) have been recognised. Mineralogy, petrography, and geochemical studies indicate that the studied samples have all been subjected to recent weathering that altered the primary mineralogy and the geochemical composition. Mineral assemblages of the Kuruman BIF within the Prieska area are dominated by quartz, which constitutes about 53 wt.percent, followed by the iron oxides averaging about 44 wt.percent. Other minerals such as carbonates and silicates are only occurring in concentrations of less than 3 wt. percent combined. The Prieska BIF is enriched in cobalt, tungsten, molybdenum, barium (Ba), and nickel compared to the BIF in the northern parts of the Griqualand West basin and other localities. Post-depositional mineral alteration studies show that most of the primary minerals had suffered various degrees of alteration. The bulk of quartz, silicate, and iron oxide minerals in the area have been recrystallized, partially replaced, dissolved, or leached out. Multiple formation processes were involved in the origin of the banded iron formation: (1). Deposition of iron-rich mud material in the deep ocean floor and formation of a mixture of iron-rich mud (felutite) on the seafloor; (2). Differentiation of felutite and formation of disseminated iron-oxide from mud; (3). Cohesion and diagenesis of disseminated iron-oxide and formation of iron-rich (magnetite/hematite) and silica-rich (chert/quartz) patches, lenses (pod), microbands, and laminations; (4). Consolidation and compaction, leading to the formation of the final banded iron formation (BIF). , Thesis (MSc) -- Faculty of Science and Agriculture, 2021
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- Date Issued: 2021-01
Sedimentology and shale gas potential of the Ecca Group, Karoo Supergroup in the Eastern Cape, South Africa
- Authors: Nemanashi , Tshisikhaiwe
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Sedimentology
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/14616 , vital:40023
- Description: The aim of the study was to establish a deeper understanding on the stratigraphy, sedimentology, petrology, organic geochemistry and diagenesis of the Ecca Group, and to provide new insight on the shale gas occurrence and potential of the Ecca Group, Karoo Supergroup in the southern Karoo Basin. The Ecca Group stratigraphy is divided into five formations from the bottom upwards, namely the Prince Albert, Whitehill, Collingham, Ripon and the Fort Brown Formations. The stratigraphy of the five studied stratigraphy’s formations is now sub-divided into two new different members each. These subdivision was based on field investigation of lithological features, sedimentary structures, facies characteristics and stratigraphic correlation points. Each member has been assigned a lithological name. Sixteen sedimentary facies have been identified in the study area and were subdivided into six distinctive facies associations (FA 1, FA 2, FA 3, FA 4, FA 5 and FA 6). Sedimentological characteristics of facies associations identified indicate that the Ecca Group sediments initially accumulated in a deep marine environment, progressed through turbidite, shallow marine and ended in lacustrine and deltaic environments. The stratigraphic succession of the Ecca Group constitutes a perfect regression sequence, indicating that the marine water gradually retreated and the sea-level gradually dropped. Grain size analysis was performed on twenty four Ecca Group sandstone samples. Statistical parameters of grain-size statistical parameters, linear discriminate functions, passega diagrams and bivariate analysis were used to reveal the hydrodynamic conditions and depositional environments. The results indicated that the Ecca Group sandstones are mostly fine to very fine grained, near-symmetrical, mesokurtic and indicative of dominance of low energy environments. The linear discriminate function analysis for the Prince Albert, Whitehill, Collingham and Ripon Formations samples indicates that the majority of the deposits were by turbidity currents all in a deep marine environment; whilst of the Fort Brown Formation samples are lacustrine/deltaic deposits. The depositional mechanism C-M plot indicates that majority of the Ecca Group sediments clustered in the PQ and QR field suggesting deposition mainly by suspension, rolling or saltation as well as graded suspension. Modal mineral composition analysis indicates that the main framework grains of the Ecca Group sandstones are quartz, feldspar as well as lithic fragments derived from metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks with a few from volcanic origin. The Ecca Group sandstones iii are immature compositionally and can be classified as feldspathic wackes and lithic wackes. The QFL ternary diagram revealed a dissected and recycled orogen arc provenance; whereas QmFLt ternary diagram point to dissected arc and transitional arc sources to an active continental margin as well as recycled provenance. These provenance characteristics suggest a metamorphic and plutonic terrains influence as the main source rock with minor debris derived from recycled sedimentary rocks. The weathering diagram and semi-quantitative weathering index suggests that the sandstones from the Ecca are mostly from a plutonic source area under arid to humid climatic conditions. The detrital modal compositions of these Ecca Group sandstones are related to a strike-slip setting, back arc to continental margin setting. Diagenetic features of the Ecca sandstones and shales are subdivided into early, late (burial) and uplift-related diagenetic stages. Mechanical compaction, recrystallization, cementation, replacement and the dissolution of framework grains or cements are some of the main diagenetic processes that largely affected the Ecca sediments. Early diagenetic processes include cementation, point/planar contact, formation of pyrite, hematite cements and mineral inversions. Recrystallization, replacement, compaction, overgrowth, albitization, seritisation, illitization, concave-convex and suture contacts as well as dissolution took place mostly in the later diagenetic stage due to increase of temperature and pressure as burial depth increased. The uplift-related diagenetic stage was mostly affected by deformation and fracturing, calcitization, dissolution, erosion and weathering. Diagenetic processes largely affected the porosity and permeability of the reservoir rock properties of the Ecca Group. Organic geochemistry results indicate that the sediments were highly weathered and the TOC values ranging from 0.10 to 7.35 wt% with mostly less than 0.5%, which indicate the source rocks have poor oil potential. The majority of the Ecca Shales have HI values less than 50 mg HC/g, TOC indicating Type-IV kerogen mostly derived from reworked organic matter with very little hydrocarbon generation potential. The relatively high Tmax (oC) and vitrinite reflective values indicate that most shales are thermally over-matured thus they have low hydrocarbon pontential.
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- Date Issued: 2019
Sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of the Congo and Kalahari basins of South Central Africa and their evolution during the formation and break-up of West Gondwana
- Authors: Linol, Bastien
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Sedimentary basins -- Africa , Sedimentology
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: vital:10655 , http://hdl.handle.net/10948/d1012148 , Sedimentary basins -- Africa , Sedimentology
- Description: The high elevated (ca. 1100 m) continental Kalahari Basin (KB) of southern Africa and the linked lower lying (ca. 400 m) Congo Basin (CB) of central Africa preserve in their interiors extensive sedimentary rock sequences and sediments that represent a unique record of the Phanerozoic geodynamic and climatic evolution of sub-Saharan Africa. In this thesis, field observations and new borehole data from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Botswana are integrated with new paleontology and geochronology to present a substantially revised stratigraphy for the CB, and south-central Africa in general. This work also introduces a new multiphase model for the subsidence and uplift history of the CB, and improves correlations with the Cape-Karoo Basin (CKB) of South Africa and the Paraná Basin (PB) of south-east Brazil. Four deep boreholes, each between 2 and 4.5 km deep, drilled in the centre of the CB in the 1950’s and 1970’s are re-examined together with the colonial literature (in French) and available seismic data. This stratigraphic and basin analysis is complemented with new U-Pb dates of detrital zircons from core-samples of two of the boreholes (Samba and Dekese), as well as from samples collected during field work in the Kwango region of the south-west DRC. This work, for the first time, constrains the maximum ages and source provenances of the successions in the CB. Following the Pan African orogens (ca. 650-530 Ma), extensive sequences of red beds were deposited by regional paleocurrents to the south. These are now best preserved (1 km thick) along the West Congo, Oubanguides, and Lufilian Belts surrounding the CB. Overlying a hiatus that represents most of the early-Paleozoic, is a 1 to 3 km thick succession of easterly derived glacial, and then continental sequences of the Karoo Supergroup. This succession records the first main episode of subsidence [10-15 m/Ma], interrupted by a phase of uplift that is likely related to far-field intracontinental deformation within Gondwana supercontinent during the Variscan and Cape Fold orogenies (ca. 250-330 Ma) at its peripheries. Detrital zircons from the lower Karoo diamictites are dated at 1.85-2.05 Ga and 1.37- 1.42 Ga, and thus sourced from Paleoproterozoic (Eburnean) and mid-Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran type-I) basement rocks in Uganda and Tanzania. Zircons from all the other successions in the CB date predominantly at 950-1050 Ma and 500-800 Ma. These are derived from sediment recycling of late-Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran type-II) and late- Neoproterozoic (Pan African) sources in the Central African Republic (CAR) and Chad. A distinct unconformity across the Karoo Supergroup in the CB is overlain by 500- 1000 m Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences, here named the Congo Supergroup. During initial rapid subsidence [10-50 m/Ma], late-Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) shallow marine to continental sedimentation attests to a short transgression of proto-Indian Ocean waters into the northern CB (at 160 m above present day sea-level), succeeded by widespread deposition of aeolian dunes that extend from the southern CB to the PB in South America. The youngest zircons from these aeolian sediments in the CB date at 190 Ma and 240-290 Ma, and most likely indicate the influence of extensive silicic volcanic ash derived from the proto-Andes along the south-western margin of Gondwana. Two superimposed mid-Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) lacustrine sequences in the central CB record a succeeding, slower [10-15 m/Ma], phase of basin subsidence during the opening of the South Atlantic (ca. 85-135 Ma). These Cretaceous sequences are in turn truncated by another regional peneplanation surface covered by Cenozoic (Eocene) silcretized sands and alluviums of the Kalahari Group, only 50-250 m thick in the centre of the CB. Southward, on top of the Kalahari Plateau in the central desert region of north-west Botswana, new boreholes intercepted laterally equivalent condensed lacustrine carbonates and calcretes (20-50 m thick) covered by sands. These terrestrial sequences are key archives of late-Mesozoic – Cenozoic paleo-climate changes, yet they remain stratigraphically unresolved. This new analysis of the Phanerozoic continental basins of south-central Africa and their equivalents in South America, opens a fresh continental-scale window into how West Gondwana break-up and concomitant epeirogenic uplifts of Kalahari (>2 km) and Congo (>200 m) are linked to interactions between the lithosphere and mantle geodynamics, and how these processes likely affected global climate changes.
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- Date Issued: 2013
Review of carbonate hosted lead-zinc (copper) deposits and the geological factors affecting their shape, size and grade
- Authors: McDonald, B
- Date: 1981
- Subjects: Lead ores , Zinc ores , Copper ores , Sedimentology , Sedimentation and deposition
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5028 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1006903
- Description: From Introduction: For at least two centuries and a corresponding number of generations of geologists and miners there has been active argument concerning the origin of certain types of carbonate hosted mineral deposit. The characterization of the type itself was and still is debatable. Objections have been raised to grouping several examples under one heading because each has its individually distinctive features. ·This is especially applicable to the carbonate hosted lead-zinc "sedimentary" deposits. The type that will be discussed in the text to follow is composed chiefly of galena, sphalerite, barite and fluorite, with pyrite , marcasite and chalcopyrite as conspicuous accessory ore minerals. Exceptions to this general copper deficient characteristic displayed by the sedimentary carbonate-hosted lead-zinc deposits are the deposits at Tsumeb and Kombat, Namibia. These deposits are hosted by the carbonate sequence of the Otavi Shelf sediments, and copper, in the form of tennantite, chalcopyrite and bornite, is the major ore constituent. Calcite, aragonite, dolomite and quartz are the commonest nonmetallic gangue minerals but siderite and silica may also be present. In contrast with other lead and zinc sulphide (volcanogenic) deposits, those to be considered here seldom carry noteworthy amounts of silver or any other precious metals. Commonly the country rock is a carbonate; limestone or dolomite, but deposits in. sandstone, shale and conglomerate are not unknown. Characteristic features are ore bodies that extend parallel or nearly so with the bedding although many such deposits are partly, or completely developed along crosscutting fissures and breccias. Some observers regard these fissure fillings as evidence for a magmatic source of the metals, whereas others regard them as an indication of remobilization of ions, metals or minerals orginally present in low-grade stratiform deposits elsewhere in the stratigraphic succession.
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- Date Issued: 1981