Smallholder farmers’ perception in the adoption of in-field rainwater harvesting techniques in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa
- Mtyelwa, Chuma https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0696-4340
- Authors: Mtyelwa, Chuma https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0696-4340
- Date: 2021-04
- Subjects: Farms, Small , Water harvesting
- Language: English
- Type: Master's theses , text
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/21367 , vital:48499
- Description: Dissemination, adoption and continued use of adopted technologies are key requirements for improved smallholder farmers’ productivity. In an attempt to improve smallholder agricultural production and creating a resilient smallholder agricultural sector, many technologies such as the in-field rainwater harvesting technique (IRWHT) have been put in place. IRWHT has a tremendous potential for improving livelihoods of rural smallholder farmers, thus decreasing their vulnerability to vagaries of climate change. However, though IRWHT was promoted for agricultural crop production improvement, smallholder farmers discontinued its adoption. This study critically assessed the perception of smallholder farmers in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality (RMLM) on the use of the in-field rainwater harvesting technique to assess the underlying factors that led to IRWHT dis-adoption. This study adopted a descriptive study design; purposive sampling was used to select a sample of 120 smallholder farmers that initially adopted IRWHT. Data was gathered through a face-to-face interview and with a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistical analysis frequency count, percentages, means and standard deviation were used for quantitative data analysis. The findings revealed that 96percent of smallholder farmers dis-adopted IRWHT after initial adoption. Moreover, IRWHT was dis-adopted 5-8 years post adoption. Critical reasons behind discontinuity include small land size (23percent), lack of reliable water source (18percent), complexity of IRWHT, continual extension support (17percent) and IRWHT taking up much space (13percent), amongst others. This study also revealed that farmers’ perception towards the innovation attributes of IRWHT, in relative advantage over economic returns such as profitability, had an impact on dis-adoption of IRWHT, with a negative farmers’ perception (𝑥̅ = 2.95). Complexity of IRWHT was associated with discontinuity of IRWHT by smallholder farmers in RMLM, with the majority (60percent) of smallholder farmers indicating that IRWHT was labour intensive. Some (39.9percent) stated that implementation of IRWHT was time consuming. Innovation attributes that led to a high rate of initial adoption were relative advantage with better yield (𝑥̅ = 4. 38) and compatibility. Smallholder farmers indicated that IRWHT can be implemented with cheaper and available working tools (𝑥̅ = 3.54). On trialability, smallholder farmers indicated that IRWHT was triable in different seasons and on observability smallholder farmers had a positive perception (𝑥̅ = 3.81) towards observable improved crop yield. Smallholder farmers had a positive perception (𝑥̅ = 4.14) of extension service support during the scaling-up of IRWHT although they indicated that the extension service support had ceased. , Thesis (MSc) -- Faculty of Science and Agriculture, 2021
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2021-04
- Authors: Mtyelwa, Chuma https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0696-4340
- Date: 2021-04
- Subjects: Farms, Small , Water harvesting
- Language: English
- Type: Master's theses , text
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/21367 , vital:48499
- Description: Dissemination, adoption and continued use of adopted technologies are key requirements for improved smallholder farmers’ productivity. In an attempt to improve smallholder agricultural production and creating a resilient smallholder agricultural sector, many technologies such as the in-field rainwater harvesting technique (IRWHT) have been put in place. IRWHT has a tremendous potential for improving livelihoods of rural smallholder farmers, thus decreasing their vulnerability to vagaries of climate change. However, though IRWHT was promoted for agricultural crop production improvement, smallholder farmers discontinued its adoption. This study critically assessed the perception of smallholder farmers in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality (RMLM) on the use of the in-field rainwater harvesting technique to assess the underlying factors that led to IRWHT dis-adoption. This study adopted a descriptive study design; purposive sampling was used to select a sample of 120 smallholder farmers that initially adopted IRWHT. Data was gathered through a face-to-face interview and with a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistical analysis frequency count, percentages, means and standard deviation were used for quantitative data analysis. The findings revealed that 96percent of smallholder farmers dis-adopted IRWHT after initial adoption. Moreover, IRWHT was dis-adopted 5-8 years post adoption. Critical reasons behind discontinuity include small land size (23percent), lack of reliable water source (18percent), complexity of IRWHT, continual extension support (17percent) and IRWHT taking up much space (13percent), amongst others. This study also revealed that farmers’ perception towards the innovation attributes of IRWHT, in relative advantage over economic returns such as profitability, had an impact on dis-adoption of IRWHT, with a negative farmers’ perception (𝑥̅ = 2.95). Complexity of IRWHT was associated with discontinuity of IRWHT by smallholder farmers in RMLM, with the majority (60percent) of smallholder farmers indicating that IRWHT was labour intensive. Some (39.9percent) stated that implementation of IRWHT was time consuming. Innovation attributes that led to a high rate of initial adoption were relative advantage with better yield (𝑥̅ = 4. 38) and compatibility. Smallholder farmers indicated that IRWHT can be implemented with cheaper and available working tools (𝑥̅ = 3.54). On trialability, smallholder farmers indicated that IRWHT was triable in different seasons and on observability smallholder farmers had a positive perception (𝑥̅ = 3.81) towards observable improved crop yield. Smallholder farmers had a positive perception (𝑥̅ = 4.14) of extension service support during the scaling-up of IRWHT although they indicated that the extension service support had ceased. , Thesis (MSc) -- Faculty of Science and Agriculture, 2021
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2021-04
Assessment of the microbial quality of various domestic rainwater harvesting systems and the suitability of a nano based treatment method
- Authors: Malema, Mokaba Shirley
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Escherichia coli , Water harvesting , Microbial contamination , Water Purification , Physicochemical process
- Language: English
- Type: thesis , text , Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/110218 , vital:33249 , https://dx.doi.org/10.21504/10962/110218
- Description: Thesis (PhD)--Rhodes University, Faculty of Science, Chemistry, 2020. , In most developing countries, people from rural and peri-urban settlements depend on harvested rainwater (HRW) as an alternative water source for drinking and other household purposes. Despite this reliance, there is little monitoring of the microbial quality of HRW in these areas. The most important issue in relation to using untreated harvested rainwater for drinking and other domestic purposes is the potential public health risks associated with microbial pathogens. Unlike chemical contamination, microbial contamination my lead to disease occurring rapidly, hence the need for frequent monitoring. Thus, the current study investigated the microbial quality of various domestic rainwater harvesting systems and the suitability of a nano based treatment method. The first experiments involved determining the microbial (Escherichia coli) and physicochemical quality (pH, turbidity, nitrate and chemical oxygen demand (COD)) of HRW in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Samples were collected from 11 tanks situated at the Rhodes University, Kenton-on-sea (coastal) and in homes in the Grahamstown area on a weekly basis between June and September 2016. The Colilert-18®/Quanti-tray® 2000 system was used for enumeration of E. coli while physicochemical parameters were measured using commercial kits. Results showed that all samples were contaminated with varying concentrations of E. coli ranging from 7 to 1055 MPN/100 mL. Physicochemical analysis revealed that pH ranged from 5.6 to 7.6 and Turbidity values obtained for all tanks were below 5 NTU except for tank 4 (5.12 ± 4.96 NTU) and 7 (5.58 ± 8.19 NTU). Nitrate levels (range: 5.95 to 28.12 mg L-1) and COD (range: 66.53 to 191.12 mg L-1) were higher than the recommended South African drinking water quality guidelines in most of the tanks. In the second experiments, the objective was to determine whether a modified hydrogen sulphide (H2S) test kit with an improved detection rate is an effective preliminary screening qualitative test that can be used for rainwater quality monitoring. The hydrogen sulphide method is a low-cost microbiological field-based test which can be used in areas where water testing facilities are limited. Harvested rainwater samples were collected from various tanks in the Eastern Cape and tested for contaminants of faecal origin using the modified hydrogen sulphide test kit, Colilert-18/Quanti-tray®/2000 and membrane filtration technique. Faecal coliforms were measured using membrane filtration, E. coli was measured using Colilert and correspondence rates were calculated with results of the improved hydrogen sulphide test kit. E. coli results ranged from <1 – >2419.6 MPN/100 mL while the faecal coliforms ranged from 0 – >300 CFU/mL. The agreement rate with hydrogen sulphide test and membrane filtration was 88% while the agreement rate for the Colilert and hydrogen sulphide test was 76%. The third experiments investigated the prevalence of pathogenic E. coli strains and their antimicrobial resistance patterns in HRW tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. E. coli isolates obtained in the first experiments were further screened for their virulence potentials using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and subsequently tested for antibiotic resistance using the disc-diffusion method against 11 antibiotics. The pathotype most detected was the neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) (ibeA 28%) while pathotype enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) was not detected. The highest resistance of the E. coli isolates was observed against Cephalothin (76%). All tested pathotypes were susceptible to Gentamicin, and 52% demonstrated multiple-antibiotic resistance (MAR). The fourth experiments shed light on the occurrence of Legionella, zoonotic and fungal pathogens in the rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) situated in different regions of South Africa. Rainwater samples were collected in urban and semi-urban areas from tanks situated in various areas in South Africa (Johannesburg, Pretoria and Grahamstown). Pathogenic organisms investigated were Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Legionella and fungal isolates. Pure isolates were obtained and screened using PCR. Results revealed the presence of pathogenic bacteria and fungi in all the tested RWHS. In Grahamstown the most detected pathogen was Salmonella (73%) while Vibrio Cholerae was not detected. All the tested pathogens were present from the RWHS situated in Pretoria. Shigella was not detected from the RWHS in Johannesburg while others were detected. Identification of fungal isolates from HRW showed the presence of pathogenic fungi such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus laurentii, Aureobasidium pullulans and Mucor circinelloides. The last experiments, focussed on exploring a suitable treatment method for HRW where a nano compound quaternary imidazolium modified montmorillonite (MMT) was used as a potential household rainwater treatment option. Harvested rainwater samples were collected from the RWHS situated at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria South Africa. River and borehole water samples were included in the study to check the efficiency of the treatment method on various water sources. River water samples were collected from Olifants River, Witbank, South Africa while borehole water was collected from a privately-owned borehole in Pretoria. For inoculation studies, all the water sources were sterilised in batches of 1 and 2 L and inoculated with approximately 107 CFU/mL of overnight E. coli. Approximately 200 mg of the quaternary imidazolium modified MMT was added to the inoculated water and samples collected immediately after inoculation (time 0) and thereafter every hour for 5 hrs. The analyses were further conducted using unsterilised water samples (total bacterial count) and 500 mg of the treatment material. Complete inactivation of E. coli in sterilised HRW was achieved in 2 hrs for the 2 L water samples and 3 hrs for the 1 L water samples. Sterilised river water achieved complete E. coli inactivation in 4 hrs for the 1 L and 5 hrs for the 2 L samples while borehole water samples achieved complete E. coli inactivation in 5 hrs (2 L) and 6 hrs for the 1 L samples. In the unsterilised water sources (total bacteria), complete bacterial inactivation was observed in 5 hrs for both the 1 and 2 L harvested rainwater samples, 6 hrs in river water samples (both 1 and 2 L) and 8 hrs for borehole water samples (1 and 2 L). The results suggest that the treatment option was more efficient in harvested rainwater (required less time for bacterial inactivation compared to river and borehole water). The results of the current study are of public health concern since the use of untreated HRW for potable purposes may pose a risk of transmission of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli and other pathogenic organisms such as Salmonella, Shigella and Vibrio cholerae. It is therefore recommended that in cases where the tested harvested rainwater is used for potable purposes, simple treatment methods such as boiling and SODIS be applied so the harvested rainwater is fit for human consumption.
- Full Text: false
- Date Issued: 2020
- Authors: Malema, Mokaba Shirley
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Escherichia coli , Water harvesting , Microbial contamination , Water Purification , Physicochemical process
- Language: English
- Type: thesis , text , Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/110218 , vital:33249 , https://dx.doi.org/10.21504/10962/110218
- Description: Thesis (PhD)--Rhodes University, Faculty of Science, Chemistry, 2020. , In most developing countries, people from rural and peri-urban settlements depend on harvested rainwater (HRW) as an alternative water source for drinking and other household purposes. Despite this reliance, there is little monitoring of the microbial quality of HRW in these areas. The most important issue in relation to using untreated harvested rainwater for drinking and other domestic purposes is the potential public health risks associated with microbial pathogens. Unlike chemical contamination, microbial contamination my lead to disease occurring rapidly, hence the need for frequent monitoring. Thus, the current study investigated the microbial quality of various domestic rainwater harvesting systems and the suitability of a nano based treatment method. The first experiments involved determining the microbial (Escherichia coli) and physicochemical quality (pH, turbidity, nitrate and chemical oxygen demand (COD)) of HRW in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Samples were collected from 11 tanks situated at the Rhodes University, Kenton-on-sea (coastal) and in homes in the Grahamstown area on a weekly basis between June and September 2016. The Colilert-18®/Quanti-tray® 2000 system was used for enumeration of E. coli while physicochemical parameters were measured using commercial kits. Results showed that all samples were contaminated with varying concentrations of E. coli ranging from 7 to 1055 MPN/100 mL. Physicochemical analysis revealed that pH ranged from 5.6 to 7.6 and Turbidity values obtained for all tanks were below 5 NTU except for tank 4 (5.12 ± 4.96 NTU) and 7 (5.58 ± 8.19 NTU). Nitrate levels (range: 5.95 to 28.12 mg L-1) and COD (range: 66.53 to 191.12 mg L-1) were higher than the recommended South African drinking water quality guidelines in most of the tanks. In the second experiments, the objective was to determine whether a modified hydrogen sulphide (H2S) test kit with an improved detection rate is an effective preliminary screening qualitative test that can be used for rainwater quality monitoring. The hydrogen sulphide method is a low-cost microbiological field-based test which can be used in areas where water testing facilities are limited. Harvested rainwater samples were collected from various tanks in the Eastern Cape and tested for contaminants of faecal origin using the modified hydrogen sulphide test kit, Colilert-18/Quanti-tray®/2000 and membrane filtration technique. Faecal coliforms were measured using membrane filtration, E. coli was measured using Colilert and correspondence rates were calculated with results of the improved hydrogen sulphide test kit. E. coli results ranged from <1 – >2419.6 MPN/100 mL while the faecal coliforms ranged from 0 – >300 CFU/mL. The agreement rate with hydrogen sulphide test and membrane filtration was 88% while the agreement rate for the Colilert and hydrogen sulphide test was 76%. The third experiments investigated the prevalence of pathogenic E. coli strains and their antimicrobial resistance patterns in HRW tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. E. coli isolates obtained in the first experiments were further screened for their virulence potentials using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and subsequently tested for antibiotic resistance using the disc-diffusion method against 11 antibiotics. The pathotype most detected was the neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) (ibeA 28%) while pathotype enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) was not detected. The highest resistance of the E. coli isolates was observed against Cephalothin (76%). All tested pathotypes were susceptible to Gentamicin, and 52% demonstrated multiple-antibiotic resistance (MAR). The fourth experiments shed light on the occurrence of Legionella, zoonotic and fungal pathogens in the rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) situated in different regions of South Africa. Rainwater samples were collected in urban and semi-urban areas from tanks situated in various areas in South Africa (Johannesburg, Pretoria and Grahamstown). Pathogenic organisms investigated were Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Legionella and fungal isolates. Pure isolates were obtained and screened using PCR. Results revealed the presence of pathogenic bacteria and fungi in all the tested RWHS. In Grahamstown the most detected pathogen was Salmonella (73%) while Vibrio Cholerae was not detected. All the tested pathogens were present from the RWHS situated in Pretoria. Shigella was not detected from the RWHS in Johannesburg while others were detected. Identification of fungal isolates from HRW showed the presence of pathogenic fungi such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus laurentii, Aureobasidium pullulans and Mucor circinelloides. The last experiments, focussed on exploring a suitable treatment method for HRW where a nano compound quaternary imidazolium modified montmorillonite (MMT) was used as a potential household rainwater treatment option. Harvested rainwater samples were collected from the RWHS situated at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria South Africa. River and borehole water samples were included in the study to check the efficiency of the treatment method on various water sources. River water samples were collected from Olifants River, Witbank, South Africa while borehole water was collected from a privately-owned borehole in Pretoria. For inoculation studies, all the water sources were sterilised in batches of 1 and 2 L and inoculated with approximately 107 CFU/mL of overnight E. coli. Approximately 200 mg of the quaternary imidazolium modified MMT was added to the inoculated water and samples collected immediately after inoculation (time 0) and thereafter every hour for 5 hrs. The analyses were further conducted using unsterilised water samples (total bacterial count) and 500 mg of the treatment material. Complete inactivation of E. coli in sterilised HRW was achieved in 2 hrs for the 2 L water samples and 3 hrs for the 1 L water samples. Sterilised river water achieved complete E. coli inactivation in 4 hrs for the 1 L and 5 hrs for the 2 L samples while borehole water samples achieved complete E. coli inactivation in 5 hrs (2 L) and 6 hrs for the 1 L samples. In the unsterilised water sources (total bacteria), complete bacterial inactivation was observed in 5 hrs for both the 1 and 2 L harvested rainwater samples, 6 hrs in river water samples (both 1 and 2 L) and 8 hrs for borehole water samples (1 and 2 L). The results suggest that the treatment option was more efficient in harvested rainwater (required less time for bacterial inactivation compared to river and borehole water). The results of the current study are of public health concern since the use of untreated HRW for potable purposes may pose a risk of transmission of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli and other pathogenic organisms such as Salmonella, Shigella and Vibrio cholerae. It is therefore recommended that in cases where the tested harvested rainwater is used for potable purposes, simple treatment methods such as boiling and SODIS be applied so the harvested rainwater is fit for human consumption.
- Full Text: false
- Date Issued: 2020
Top-soil water retention in organic and conventional farming systems in South Africa’s Southern Cape
- Authors: Eckert, Catherine Jessica
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Water harvesting , Soil moisture conservation Organic farming Sustainable agriculture
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MTech
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10948/39885 , vital:35500
- Description: With the world’s growing population and limited natural resources, there is a need to produce more food using less inputs. A major limiting factor to meeting the agricultural production needs of the growing population is fresh water. Water is a critical resource in agriculture and may be more of a limiting factor than other crop growth requirements in some areas. Furthermore, water availability is being impacted by climate change and competition from other industries. Methods of improving crop water use efficiency through conservation of water and the enhancement of crop growth need to be employed to meet the growing demand sustainably. The purpose of the research was to assess the differences in soil water status between organically farmed crops with a grass mulch and conventionally farmed crops without mulch, with a view to making more efficient use of the water resource. This research was conducted at the Mandela long term organic farming systems research trial site at Nelson Mandela University, George campus in the southern Cape, South Africa. It is part of a larger research project (the Mandela Trials) in which various researchers have been involved in different aspects of this trial including agronomy, microbiology and pest and disease control. This research took place over two seasons, namely, 2016-2017 season and 2017-2018 season. The soil water content (SWC) of organic and conventional plots were measured using fixed capacitance probes that recorded continuous data, every half hour, at depths of 10, 30 and 50 cm. A handheld theta probe was also used to measure the SWC in the top 6 cm of the soil at 7 to14 day intervals. The organic treatment had a significantly higher SWC than the conventional treatment over the two seasons in which this research was conducted. In addition, soil carbon was significantly higher in the organic treatment, than the conventional. Organic farming methods preserve and promote an increase in soil organic matter, thus improving the soil structure and increasing the soil’s water holding capacity. From this research, it is concluded that organic farming practices can be used to help conserve SWC, keeping it available to crops for longer and helping farmers make more efficient use of this scarce resource. This is especially relevant for low rainfall areas which are affected by water shortages. The improved SWC availability should be coupled with good agronomic practices to increase productive water losses and the conversion of water to yields, thus increasing water use efficiency. In addition, adding organic matter to the soil will improve resilience of the soil and help sequester carbon and thus help in mitigating climate change.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
Top-soil water retention in organic and conventional farming systems in South Africa’s Southern Cape
- Authors: Eckert, Catherine Jessica
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Water harvesting , Soil moisture conservation Organic farming Sustainable agriculture
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MTech
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10948/39885 , vital:35500
- Description: With the world’s growing population and limited natural resources, there is a need to produce more food using less inputs. A major limiting factor to meeting the agricultural production needs of the growing population is fresh water. Water is a critical resource in agriculture and may be more of a limiting factor than other crop growth requirements in some areas. Furthermore, water availability is being impacted by climate change and competition from other industries. Methods of improving crop water use efficiency through conservation of water and the enhancement of crop growth need to be employed to meet the growing demand sustainably. The purpose of the research was to assess the differences in soil water status between organically farmed crops with a grass mulch and conventionally farmed crops without mulch, with a view to making more efficient use of the water resource. This research was conducted at the Mandela long term organic farming systems research trial site at Nelson Mandela University, George campus in the southern Cape, South Africa. It is part of a larger research project (the Mandela Trials) in which various researchers have been involved in different aspects of this trial including agronomy, microbiology and pest and disease control. This research took place over two seasons, namely, 2016-2017 season and 2017-2018 season. The soil water content (SWC) of organic and conventional plots were measured using fixed capacitance probes that recorded continuous data, every half hour, at depths of 10, 30 and 50 cm. A handheld theta probe was also used to measure the SWC in the top 6 cm of the soil at 7 to14 day intervals. The organic treatment had a significantly higher SWC than the conventional treatment over the two seasons in which this research was conducted. In addition, soil carbon was significantly higher in the organic treatment, than the conventional. Organic farming methods preserve and promote an increase in soil organic matter, thus improving the soil structure and increasing the soil’s water holding capacity. From this research, it is concluded that organic farming practices can be used to help conserve SWC, keeping it available to crops for longer and helping farmers make more efficient use of this scarce resource. This is especially relevant for low rainfall areas which are affected by water shortages. The improved SWC availability should be coupled with good agronomic practices to increase productive water losses and the conversion of water to yields, thus increasing water use efficiency. In addition, adding organic matter to the soil will improve resilience of the soil and help sequester carbon and thus help in mitigating climate change.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
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